______________________________________________________________________
14 Templates [temp]
______________________________________________________________________
1 A template defines a family of classes or functions.
template-declaration:
exportopt template < template-parameter-list > declaration
template-parameter-list:
template-parameter
template-parameter-list , template-parameter
The declaration in a template-declaration shall
--declare or define a function or a class, or
--define a member function, a member class or a static data member of
a class template or of a class nested within a class template, or
--define a member template of a class or class template.
A template-declaration is a declaration. A template-declaration is
also a definition if its declaration defines a function, a class, or a
static data member.
2 A template-declaration can appear only as a namespace scope or class
scope declaration. In a function template declaration, the declara-
tor-id shall be a template-name (i.e., not a template-id). [Note: in
a class template declaration, if the declarator-id is a template-id,
the declaration declares a class template partial specialization
(_temp.class.spec_). ]
3 In a template-declaration, explicit specialization, or explicit
instantiation the init-declarator-list in the declaration shall con-
tain at most one declarator. When such a declaration is used to
declare a class template, no declarator is permitted.
4 A template name may have linkage (_basic.link_). A template, a tem-
plate explicit specialization (_temp.expl.spec_), or a class template
partial specialization shall not have C linkage. If the linkage of
one of these is something other than C or C++, the behavior is imple-
mentation-defined. Template definitions shall obey the one definition
rule (_basic.def.odr_). [Note: default arguments for function tem-
plates and for member functions of class templates are considered def-
initions for the purpose of template instantiation (_temp.decls_) and
must also obey the one definition rule. ]
5 A class template shall not have the same name as any other template,
class, function, object, enumeration, enumerator, namespace, or type
in the same scope (_basic.scope_), except as specified in
(_temp.class.spec_). Except that a function template can be over-
loaded either by (non-template) functions with the same name or by
other function templates with the same name (_temp.over_), a template
name declared in namespace scope or in class scope shall be unique in
that scope.
6 A namespace-scope declaration or definition of a non-inline function
template, a non-inline member function template, a non-inline member
function of a class template or a static data member of a class tem-
plate may be preceded by the export keyword. If such a template is
defined in the same translation unit in which it is declared as
exported, the definition is considered to be exported. The first dec-
laration of the template containing the export keyword must not follow
the definition.
7 Declaring a class template exported is equivalent to declaring all of
its non-inline function members, static data members, member classes,
member class templates and non-inline function member templates which
are defined in that translation unit exported.
8 Templates defined in an unnamed namespace shall not be exported. A
template shall be exported only once in a program. An implementation
is not required to diagnose a violation of this rule. A non-exported
template that is neither explicitly specialized nor explicitly instan-
tiated must be defined in every translation unit in which it is
implicitly instantiated (_temp.inst_) or explicitly instantiated
(_temp.explicit_); no diagnostic is required. An exported template
need only be declared (and not necessarily defined) in a translation
unit in which it is instantiated. A template function declared both
exported and inline is just inline and not exported.
9 [Note: an implementation may require that a translation unit contain-
ing the definition of an exported template be compiled before any
translation unit containing an instantiation of that template. ]
14.1 Template parameters [temp.param]
1 The syntax for template-parameters is:
template-parameter:
type-parameter
parameter-declaration
type-parameter:
class identifieropt
class identifieropt = type-id
typename identifieropt
typename identifieropt = type-id
template < template-parameter-list > class identifieropt
template < template-parameter-list > class identifieropt = id-expression
2 There is no semantic difference between class and typename in a tem-
plate-parameter. typename followed by an unqualified-id names a tem-
plate type parameter. typename followed by a qualified-name denotes
the type in a non-type 1) parameter-declaration. A storage class
_________________________
1) Since template template-parameters and template template-arguments
shall not be specified in a template-parameter declaration. [Note: a
template parameter may be a class template. For example,
template<class T> class myarray { /* ... */ };
template<class K, class V, template<class T> class C = myarray>
class Map {
C<K> key;
C<V> value;
// ...
};
--end note]
3 A type-parameter defines its identifier to be a type-name (if declared
with class or typename) or template-name (if declared with template)
in the scope of the template declaration. [Note: because of the name
lookup rules, a template-parameter that could be interpreted as either
a non-type template-parameter or a type-parameter (because its identi-
fier is the name of an already existing class) is taken as a type-
parameter. For example,
class T { /* ... */ };
int i;
template<class T, T i> void f(T t)
{
T t1 = i; // template-parameters T and i
::T t2 = ::i; // global namespace members T and i
}
Here, the template f has a type-parameter called T, rather than an
unnamed non-type template-parameter of class T. ]
4 A non-type template-parameter shall have one of the following (option-
ally cv-qualified) types:
--integral or enumeration type,
--pointer to object or pointer to function,
--reference to object or reference to function,
--pointer to member.
5 [Note: other types are disallowed either explicitly below or implic-
itly by the rules governing the form of template-arguments
(_temp.arg_). ] The top-level cv-qualifiers on the template-parameter
are ignored when determining its type.
6 A non-type non-reference template-parameter is not an lvalue. It
shall not be assigned to or in any other way have its value changed.
A non-type non-reference template-parameter cannot have its address
_________________________
are treated as types for descriptive purposes, the terms non-type pa-
rameter and non-type argument are used to refer to non-type, non-tem-
plate parameters and arguments.
taken. When a non-type non-reference template-parameter is used as an
initializer for a reference, a temporary is always used. [Example:
template<const X& x, int i> void f()
{
i++; // error: change of template-parameter value
&x; // OK
&i; // error: address of non-reference template-parameter
int& ri = i; // error: non-const reference bound to temporary
const int& cri = i; // OK: const reference bound to temporary
}
--end example]
7 A non-type template-parameter shall not be declared to have floating
point, class, or void type. [Example:
template<double d> class X; // error
template<double* pd> class Y; // OK
template<double& rd> class Z; // OK
--end example]
8 A non-type template-parameter of type "array of T" or "function
returning T" is adjusted to be of type "pointer to T" or "pointer to
function returning T", respectively. [Example:
template<int *a> struct R { /* ... */ };
template<int b[5]> struct S { /* ... */ };
int *p;
R<p> w; // OK
S<p> x; // OK due to parameter adjustment
int v[5];
R<v> y; // OK due to implicit argument conversion
S<v> z; // OK due to both adjustment and conversion
--end example]
9 A default template-argument is a template-argument (_temp.arg_) speci-
fied after = in a template-parameter. A default template-argument may
be specified for any kind of template-parameter (type, non-type, tem-
plate). A default template-argument may be specified in a class tem-
plate declaration or a class template definition. A default template-
argument shall not be specified in a function template declaration or
a function template definition, nor in the template-parameter-list of
the definition of a member of a class template.
10The set of default template-arguments available for use with a tem-
plate declaration or definition is obtained by merging the default
arguments from the definition (if in scope) and all declarations in
scope in the same way default function arguments are
(_dcl.fct.default_). [Example:
template<class T1, class T2 = int> class A;
template<class T1 = int, class T2> class A;
is equivalent to
template<class T1 = int, class T2 = int> class A;
--end example]
11If a template-parameter has a default template-argument, all subse-
quent template-parameters shall have a default template-argument sup-
plied. [Example:
template<class T1 = int, class T2> class B; // error
--end example]
12A template-parameter may not be given default arguments by two differ-
ent declarations in the same scope. [Example:
template<class T = int> class X;
template<class T = int> class X { /*... */ }; // error
--end example]
13The scope of a template-parameter extends from its point of declara-
tion until the end of its template. In particular, a template-parame-
ter can be used in the declaration of subsequent template-parameters
and their default arguments. [Example:
template<class T, T* p, class U = T> class X { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void f(T* p = new T);
--end example]
14A template-parameter cannot be used in preceding template-parameters
or their default arguments.
15When parsing a default template-argument for a non-type template-
parameter, the first non-nested > is taken as the end of the template-
parameter-list rather than a greater-than operator. [Example:
template<int i = 3 > 4 > // syntax error
class X { /* ... */ };
template<int i = (3 > 4) > // OK
class Y { /* ... */ };
--end example]
14.2 Names of template specializations [temp.names]
1 A template specialization (_temp.spec_) can be referred to by a tem-
plate-id:
template-id:
template-name < template-argument-listopt >
template-name:
identifier
template-argument-list:
template-argument
template-argument-list , template-argument
template-argument:
assignment-expression
type-id
id-expression
[Note: the name lookup rules (_basic.lookup_) are used to associate
the use of a name with a template declaration; that is, to identify a
name as a template-name. ]
2 For a template-name to be explicitly qualified by the template argu-
ments, the name must be known to refer to a template.
3 After name lookup (_basic.lookup_) finds that a name is a template-
name, if this name is followed by a <, the < is always taken as the
beginning of a template-argument-list and never as a name followed by
the less-than operator. When parsing a template-id, the first non-
nested >2) is taken as the end of the template-argument-list rather
than a greater-than operator. [Example:
template<int i> class X { /* ... */ };
X< 1>2 > x1; // syntax error
X<(1>2)> x2; // OK
template<class T> class Y { /* ... */ };
Y< X<1> > x3; // OK
Y<X<6>> 1> > x4; // OK: Y< X< (6>>1) > >
--end example]
4 When the name of a member template specialization appears after . or
-> in a postfix-expression, or after nested-name-specifier in a quali-
fied-id, and the postfix-expression or qualified-id explicitly depends
on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_), the member template name must be
prefixed by the keyword template. Otherwise the name is assumed to
name a non-template. [Example:
class X {
public:
template<size_t> X* alloc();
template<size_t> static X* adjust();
};
template<class T> void f(T* p)
{
T* p1 = p->alloc<200>();
// ill-formed: < means less than
T* p2 = p->template alloc<200>();
// OK: < starts template argument list
T::adjust<100>();
// ill-formed: < means less than
T::template adjust<100>();
// OK: < starts explicit qualification
}
--end example]
5 If a name prefixed by the keyword template is not the name of a member
template, the program is ill-formed. [Note: the keyword template may
not be applied to non-template members of class templates. ]
_________________________
2) A > that encloses the type-id of a dynamic_cast, static_cast, rein-
terpret_cast or const_cast, or which encloses the template-arguments
of a subsequent template-id, is considered nested for the purpose of
this description.
6 A template-id that names a class template specialization is a class-
name (clause _class_).
14.3 Template arguments [temp.arg]
1 There are three forms of template-argument, corresponding to the three
forms of template-parameter: type, non-type and template. The type
and form of each template-argument specified in a template-id shall
match the type and form specified for the corresponding parameter
declared by the template in its template-parameter-list. [Example:
template<class T> class Array {
T* v;
int sz;
public:
explicit Array(int);
T& operator[](int);
T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; }
// ...
};
Array<int> v1(20);
typedef complex<double> dcomplex; // complex is a standard
// library template
Array<dcomplex> v2(30);
Array<dcomplex> v3(40);
void bar() {
v1[3] = 7;
v2[3] = v3.elem(4) = dcomplex(7,8);
}
--end example]
2 In a template-argument, an ambiguity between a type-id and an expres-
sion is resolved to a type-id, regardless of the form of the corre-
sponding template-parameter.3) [Example:
template<class T> void f();
template<int I> void f();
void g()
{
f<int()>(); // int() is a type-id: call the first f()
}
--end example]
3 The name of a template-argument shall be accessible at the point where
it is used as a template-argument. [Note: if the name of the tem-
plate-argument is accessible at the point where it is used as a tem-
plate-argument, there is no further access restriction in the result-
ing instantiation where the corresponding template-parameter name is
used. ] [Example:
_________________________
3) There is no such ambiguity in a default template-argument because
the form of the template-parameter determines the allowable forms of
the template-argument.
template<class T> class X {
static T t;
};
class Y {
private:
struct S { /* ... */ };
X<S> x; // OK: S is accessible
// X<Y::S> has a static member of type Y::S
// OK: even though Y::S is private
};
X<Y::S> y; // error: S not accessible
--end example] For a template-argument of class type, the template
definition has no special access rights to the inaccessible members of
the template argument type.
4 When default template-arguments are used, a template-argument list can
be empty. In that case the empty <> brackets shall still be used as
the template-argument-list. [Example:
template<class T = char> class String;
String<>* p; // OK: String<char>
String* q; // syntax error
--end example]
5 An explicit destructor call (_class.dtor_) for an object that has a
type that is a class template specialization may explicitly specify
the template-arguments. [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
~A();
};
void f(A<int>* p, A<int>* q) {
p->A<int>::~A(); // OK: destructor call
q->A<int>::~A<int>(); // OK: destructor call
}
--end example]
6 If the use of a template-argument gives rise to an ill-formed con-
struct in the instantiation of a template specialization, the program
is ill-formed.
7 When the template in a template-id is an overloaded function template,
both non-template functions in the overload set and function templates
in the overload set for which the template-arguments do not match the
template-parameters are ignored. If none of the function templates
have matching template-parameters, the program is ill-formed.
14.3.1 Template type arguments [temp.arg.type]
1 A template-argument for a template-parameter which is a type shall be
a type-id.
2 A local type, a type with no linkage, an unnamed type or a type com-
pounded from any of these types shall not be used as a template-
argument for a template type-parameter. [Example:
template <class T> class X { /* ... */ };
void f()
{
struct S { /* ... */ };
X<S> x3; // error: local type used as template-argument
X<S*> x4; // error: pointer to local type used as template-argument
}
--end example] [Note: a template type argument may be an incomplete
type (_basic.types_). ]
3 If a declaration acquires a function type through a type dependent on
a template-parameter and this causes a declaration that does not use
the syntactic form of a function declarator to have function type, the
program is ill-formed. [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
static T t;
};
typedef int function();
A<function> a; // ill-formed: would declare A<function>::t
// as a static member function
--end example]
14.3.2 Template non-type arguments [temp.arg.nontype]
1 A template-argument for a non-type, non-template template-parameter
shall be one of:
--an integral constant-expression of integral or enumeration type; or
--the name of a non-type template-parameter; or
--the name of an object or function with external linkage, including
function templates and function template-ids but excluding non-
static class members, expressed as id-expression; or
--the address of an object or function with external linkage, includ-
ing function templates and function template-ids but excluding non-
static class members, expressed as & id-expression where the & is
optional if the name refers to a function or array; or
--a pointer to member expressed as described in _expr.unary.op_ .
2 [Note: A string literal (_lex.string_) is not an acceptable template-
argument because a string literal is an object with internal linkage.
[Example:
template<class T, char* p> class X {
// ...
X();
X(const char* q) { /* ... */ }
};
X<int,"Studebaker"> x1; // error: string literal as template-argument
char p[] = "Vivisectionist";
X<int,p> x2; // OK
--end example] --end note]
3 [Note: Addresses of array elements and names or addresses of non-
static class members are not acceptable template-arguments. [Example:
template<int* p> class X { };
int a[10];
struct S { int m; static int s; } s;
X<&a[2]> x3; // error: address of array element
X<&s.m> x4; // error: address of non-static member
X<&s.s> x5; // error: &S::s must be used
X<&S::s> x6; // OK: address of static member
--end example] --end note]
4 [Note: Temporaries, unnamed lvalues, and named lvalues that do not
have external linkage are not acceptable template-arguments when the
corresponding template-parameter has reference type. [Example:
template<const int& CRI> struct B { /* ... */ };
B<1> b2; // error: temporary would be required for template argument
int c = 1;
B<c> b1; // OK
--end example] --end note]
5 The following conversions are performed on each expression used as a
non-type template-argument. If a non-type template-argument cannot be
converted to the type of the corresponding template-parameter then the
program is ill-formed.
--for a non-type template-parameter of integral or enumeration type,
integral promotions (_conv.prom_) and integral conversions
(_conv.integral_) are applied.
--for a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to object, quali-
fication conversions (_conv.qual_) and the array-to-pointer conver-
sion (_conv.array_) are applied. [Note: In particular, neither the
null pointer conversion (_conv.ptr_) nor the derived-to-base conver-
sion (_conv.ptr_) are applied. Although 0 is a valid template-argu-
ment for a non-type template-parameter of integral type, it is not a
valid template-argument for a non-type template-parameter of pointer
type. ]
--For a non-type template-parameter of type reference to object, no
conversions apply. The type referred to by the reference may be
more cv-qualified than the (otherwise identical) type of the tem-
plate-argument. The template-parameter is bound directly to the
template-argument, which must be an lvalue.
--For a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to function, only
the function-to-pointer conversion (_conv.func_) is applied. If the
template-argument represents a set of overloaded functions (or a
pointer to such), the matching function is selected from the set
(_over.over_).
--For a non-type template-parameter of type reference to function, no
conversions apply. If the template-argument represents a set of
overloaded functions, the matching function is selected from the set
(_over.over_).
--For a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to member func-
tion, no conversions apply. If the template-argument represents a
set of overloaded member functions, the matching member function is
selected from the set (_over.over_).
--For a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to data member,
qualification conversions (_conv.qual_) are applied.
[Example:
template<const int* pci> struct X { /* ... */ };
int ai[10];
X<ai> xi; // array to pointer and qualification conversions
struct Y { /* ... */ };
template<const Y& b> struct Z { /* ... */ };
Y y;
Z<y> z; // no conversion, but note extra cv-qualification
template<int (&pa)[5]> struct W { /* ... */ };
int b[5];
W<b> w; // no conversion
void f(char);
void f(int);
template<void (*pf)(int)> struct A { /* ... */ };
A<&f> a; // selects f(int)
--end example]
14.3.3 Template template arguments [temp.arg.template]
1 A template-argument for a template template-parameter shall be the
name of a class template, expressed as id-expression. Only primary
class templates are considered when matching the template template
argument with the corresponding parameter; partial specializations are
not considered even if their parameter lists match that of the tem-
plate template parameter.
2 Any partial specializations (_temp.class.spec_) associated with the
primary class template are considered when a specialization based on
the template template-parameter is instantiated. If a specialization
is not visible at the point of instantiation, and it would have been
selected had it been visible, the program is ill-formed; no diagnostic
is required. [Example:
template<class T> class A { // primary template
int x;
};
template<class T> class A<T*> { // partial specialization
long x;
};
template<template<class U> class V> class C {
V<int> y;
V<int*> z;
};
C<A> c; // V<int> within C<A> uses the primary template,
// so c.y.x has type int
// V<int*> within C<A> uses the partial specialization,
// so c.z.x has type long
--end example]
14.4 Type equivalence [temp.type]
1 Two template-ids refer to the same class or function if their template
names are identical, they refer to the same template, their type tem-
plate-arguments are the same type, their non-type template-arguments
of integral or enumeration type have identical values, their non-type
template-arguments of pointer or reference type refer to the same
external object or function, and their template template-arguments
refer to the same template. [Example:
template<class E, int size> class buffer { /* ... */ };
buffer<char,2*512> x;
buffer<char,1024> y;
declares x and y to be of the same type, and
template<class T, void(*err_fct)()> class list { /* ... */ };
list<int,&error_handler1> x1;
list<int,&error_handler2> x2;
list<int,&error_handler2> x3;
list<char,&error_handler2> x4;
declares x2 and x3 to be of the same type. Their type differs from
the types of x1 and x4. ]
14.5 Template declarations [temp.decls]
1 A template-id, that is, the template-name followed by a template-argu-
ment-list shall not be specified in the declaration of a primary tem-
plate declaration. [Example:
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2, I> { }; // error
template<class T1, int I> void sort<T1, I>(T1 data[I]); // error
--end example] [Note: however, this syntax is allowed in class tem-
plate partial specializations (_temp.class.spec_). ]
2 For purposes of name lookup and instantiation, default arguments of
function templates and default arguments of member functions of class
templates are considered definitions; each default argument is a sepa-
rate definition which is unrelated to the function template definition
or to any other default arguments.
14.5.1 Class templates [temp.class]
1 A class template defines the layout and operations for an unbounded
set of related types. [Example: a single class template List might
provide a common definition for list of int, list of float, and list
of pointers to Shapes. ]
2 [Example: An array class template might be declared like this:
template<class T> class Array {
T* v;
int sz;
public:
explicit Array(int);
T& operator[](int);
T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; }
// ...
};
The prefix template <class T> specifies that a template is being
declared and that a type-name T will be used in the declaration. In
other words, Array is a parameterized type with T as its parameter. ]
3 When a member function, a member class, a static data member or a mem-
ber template of a class template is defined outside of the class tem-
plate definition, the member definition is defined as a template defi-
nition in which the template-parameters are those of the class tem-
plate. The names of the template parameters used in the definition of
the member may be different from the template parameter names used in
the class template definition. The template argument list following
the class template name in the member definition shall name the param-
eters in the same order as the one used in the template parameter list
of the member. [Example:
template<class T1, class T2> struct A {
void f1();
void f2();
};
template<class T2, class T1> void A<T2,T1>::f1() { } //OK
template<class T2, class T1> void A<T1,T2>::f2() { } //error
--end example]
4 In a redeclaration, partial specialiation, explicit specialization or
explicit instantiation of a class template, the class-key shall agree
in kind with the original class template declaration
(_dcl.type.elab_).
14.5.1.1 Member functions of class templates [temp.mem.func]
1 A member function template may be defined outside of the class tem-
plate definition in which it is declared. [Example:
template<class T> class Array {
T* v;
int sz;
public:
explicit Array(int);
T& operator[](int);
T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; }
// ...
};
declares three function templates. The subscript function might be
defined like this:
template<class T> T& Array<T>::operator[](int i)
{
if (i<0 || sz<=i) error("Array: range error");
return v[i];
}
--end example]
2 The template-arguments for a member function of a class template are
determined by the template-arguments of the type of the object for
which the member function is called. [Example: the template-argument
for Array<T>::operator[]() will be determined by the Array to which
the subscripting operation is applied.
Array<int> v1(20);
Array<dcomplex> v2(30);
v1[3] = 7; // Array<int>::operator[]()
v2[3] = dcomplex(7,8); // Array<dcomplex>::operator[]()
--end example]
14.5.1.2 Member classes of class templates [temp.mem.class]
1 A class member of a class template may be defined outside the class
template definition in which it is declared. [Note: the class member
must be defined before its first use that requires an instantiation
(_temp.inst_). For example,
template<class T> struct A {
class B;
};
A<int>::B* b1; // OK: requires A to be defined but not A::B
template<class T> class A<T>::B { };
A<int>::B b2; // OK: requires A::B to be defined
--end note]
14.5.1.3 Static data members of class templates [temp.static]
1 A definition for a static data member may be provided in a namespace
scope enclosing the definition of the static member's class template.
[Example:
template<class T> class X {
static T s;
};
template<class T> T X<T>::s = 0;
--end example]
14.5.2 Member templates [temp.mem]
1 A template can be declared within a class or class template; such a
template is called a member template. A member template can be
defined within or outside its class definition or class template defi-
nition. A member template of a class template that is defined outside
of its class template definition shall be specified with the template-
parameters of the class template followed by the template-parameters
of the member template. [Example:
template<class T> class string {
public:
template<class T2> int compare(const T2&);
template<class T2> string(const string<T2>& s) { /* ... */ }
// ...
};
template<class T> template<class T2> int string<T>::compare(const T2& s)
{
// ...
}
--end example]
2 A local class shall not have member templates. Access control rules
(clause _class.access_) apply to member template names. A destructor
shall not be a member template. A normal (non-template) member func-
tion with a given name and type and a member function template of the
same name, which could be used to generate a specialization of the
same type, can both be declared in a class. When both exist, a use of
that name and type refers to the non-template member unless an
explicit template argument list is supplied. [Example:
template <class T> struct A {
void f(int);
template <class T2> void f(T2);
};
template <> void A<int>::f(int) { } // non-template member
template <> template <> void A<int>::f<>(int) { } // template member
int main()
{
A<char> ac;
ac.f(1); // non-template
ac.f('c'); // template
ac.f<>(1); // template
}
--end example]
3 A member function template shall not be virtual. [Example:
template <class T> struct AA {
template <class C> virtual void g(C); // error
virtual void f(); // OK
};
--end example]
4 A specialization of a member function template does not override a
virtual function from a base class. [Example:
class B {
virtual void f(int);
};
class D : public B {
template <class T> void f(T); // does not override B::f(int)
void f(int i) { f<>(i); } // overriding function that calls
// the template instantiation
};
--end example]
5 A specialization of a template conversion function is referenced in
the same way as a non-template conversion function that converts to
the same type. [Example:
struct A {
template <class T> operator T*();
};
template <class T> A::operator T*(){ return 0; }
template <> A::operator char*(){ return 0; } // specialization
template A::operator void*(); // explicit instantiation
int main()
{
A a;
int* ip;
ip = a.operator int*(); // explicit call to template operator
// A::operator int*()
}
--end example] [Note: because the explicit template argument list
follows the function template name, and because conversion member
function templates and constructor member function templates are
called without using a function name, there is no way to provide an
explicit template argument list for these function templates. ]
6 A specialization of a template conversion function is not found by
name lookup. Instead, any template conversion functions visible in
the context of the use are considered. For each such operator, if
argument deduction succeeds (_temp.deduct.conv_), the resulting spe-
cialization is used as if found by name lookup.
7 A using-declaration in a derived class cannot refer to a specializa-
tion of a template conversion function in a base class.
8 Overload resolution (_over.ics.rank_) and partial ordering
(_temp.func.order_) are used to select the best conversion function
among multiple template conversion functions and/or non-template con-
version functions.
14.5.3 Friends [temp.friend]
1 A friend of a class or class template can be a function template or
class template, a specialization of a function template or class tem-
plate, or an ordinary (nontemplate) function or class. For a friend
function declaration that is not a template declaration:
--if the name of the friend is a qualified or unqualified template-id,
the friend declaration refers to a specialization of a function tem-
plate, otherwise
--if the name of the friend is a qualified-id and a matching nontem-
plate function is found in the specified class or namespace, the
friend declaration refers to that function, otherwise,
--if the name of the friend is a qualified-id and a matching special-
ization of a template function is found in the specified class or
namespace, the friend declaration refers to that function special-
ization, otherwise,
--the name shall be an unqualified-id that declares (or redeclares) an
ordinary (nontemplate) function.
[Example:
template<class T> class task;
template<class T> task<T>* preempt(task<T>*);
template<class T> class task {
// ...
friend void next_time();
friend void process(task<T>*);
friend task<T>* preempt<T>(task<T>*);
template<class C> friend int func(C);
friend class task<int>;
template<class P> friend class frd;
// ...
};
Here, each specialization of the task class template has the function
next_time as a friend; because process does not have explicit tem-
plate-arguments, each specialization of the task class template has an
appropriately typed function process as a friend, and this friend is
not a function template specialization; because the friend preempt has
an explicit template-argument <T>, each specialization of the task
class template has the appropriate specialization of the function tem-
plate preempt as a friend; and each specialization of the task class
template has all specializations of the function template func as
friends. Similarly, each specialization of the task class template
has the class template specialization task<int> as a friend, and has
all specializations of the class template frd as friends. --end
example]
2 A friend function declaration that is not a template declaration and
in which the name of the friend is an unqualified template-id shall
refer to a specialization of a function template declared in the
nearest enclosing namespace scope. [Example:
namespace N {
template <class T> void f(T);
void g(int);
namespace M {
template <class T> void h(T);
template <class T> void i(T);
struct A {
friend void f<>(int); // ill-formed - N::f
friend void h<>(int); // OK - M::h
friend void g(int); // OK - new decl of M::g
template <class T> void i(T);
friend void i<>(int); // ill-formed - A::i
};
}
}
--end example]
3 A friend template may be declared within a class or class template. A
friend function template may be defined within a class or class tem-
plate, but a friend class template may not be defined in a class or
class template. In these cases, all specializations of the friend
class or friend function template are friends of the class or class
template granting friendship. [Example:
class A {
template<class T> friend class B; // OK
template<class T> friend void f(T){ /* ... */ } // OK
};
--end example]
4 A template friend declaration specifies that all specializations of
that template, whether they are implicitly instantiated (_temp.inst_),
partially specialized (_temp.class.spec_) or explicitly specialized
(_temp.expl.spec_), are friends of the class containing the template
friend declaration. [Example:
class X {
template<class T> friend struct A;
class Y { };
};
template<class T> struct A { X::Y ab; }; //OK
template<class T> struct A<T*> { X::Y ab; }; //OK
--end example]
5 When a function is defined in a friend function declaration in a class
template, the function is defined at each instantiation of the class
template. The function is defined even if it is never used. The same
restrictions on multiple declarations and definitions which apply to
non-template function declarations and definitions also apply to these
implicit definitions. [Note: if the function definition is ill-formed
for a given specialization of the enclosing class template, the pro-
gram is ill-formed even if the function is never used. ]
6 A member of a class template may be declared to be a friend of a non-
template class. In this case, the corresponding member of every spe-
cialization of the class template is a friend of the class granting
friendship. [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
struct B { };
void f();
};
class C {
template<class T> friend struct A<T>::B;
template<class T> friend void A<T>::f();
};
--end example]
7 [Note: a friend declaration may first declare a member of an enclosing
namespace scope (_temp.inject_). ]
8 A friend template shall not be declared in a local class.
9 Friend declarations shall not declare partial specializations. [Exam-
ple:
template<class T> class A { };
class X {
template<class T> friend class A<T*>; // error
};
--end example]
10When a friend declaration refers to a specialization of a function
template, the function parameter declarations shall not include
default arguments, nor shall the inline specifier be used in such a
declaration.
14.5.4 Class template partial specializations [temp.class.spec]
1 A primary class template declaration is one in which the class tem-
plate name is an identifier. A template declaration in which the
class template name is a template-id, is a partial specialization of
the class template named in the template-id. A partial specialization
of a class template provides an alternative definition of the template
that is used instead of the primary definition when the arguments in a
specialization match those given in the partial specialization
(_temp.class.spec.match_). The primary template shall be declared
before any specializations of that template. If a template is par-
tially specialized then that partial specialization shall be declared
before the first use of that partial specialization that would cause
an implicit instantiation to take place, in every translation unit in
which such a use occurs; no diagnostic is required.
2 When a partial specialization is used within the instantiation of an
exported template, and the unspecialized template name is non-depen-
dent in the exported template, a declaration of the partial special-
ization must be declared before the definition of the exported tem-
plate, in the translation unit containing that definition. A similar
restriction applies to explicit specialization; see _temp.spec_.
3 Each class template partial specialization is a distinct template and
definitions shall be provided for the members of a template partial
specialization (_temp.class.spec.mfunc_).
4 [Example:
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A { }; // #1
template<class T, int I> class A<T, T*, I> { }; // #2
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1*, T2, I> { }; // #3
template<class T> class A<int, T*, 5> { }; // #4
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2*, I> { }; // #5
The first declaration declares the primary (unspecialized) class tem-
plate. The second and subsequent declarations declare partial spe-
cializations of the primary template. ]
5 The template parameters are specified in the angle bracket enclosed
list that immediately follows the keyword template. For partial spe-
cializations, the template argument list is explicitly written immedi-
ately following the class template name. For primary templates, this
list is implicitly described by the template parameter list. Specifi-
cally, the order of the template arguments is the sequence in which
they appear in the template parameter list. [Example: the template
argument list for the primary template in the example above is <T1,
T2, I>. ] [Note: the template argument list shall not be specified in
the primary template declaration. For example,
template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2, I> { }; // error
--end note]
6 A class template partial specialization may be declared or redeclared
in any namespace scope in which its definition may be defined
(_temp.class_ and _temp.mem_). [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
class C {
template<class T2> struct B { };
};
};
// partial specialization of A<T>::C::B<T2>
template<class T> template<class T2>
struct A<T>::C::B<T2*> { };
A<short>::C::B<int*> absip; // uses partial specialization
--end example]
7 Partial specialization declarations themselves are not found by name
lookup. Rather, when the primary template name is used, any previousy
declared partial specializations of the primary template are also con-
sidered. One consequence is that a using-declaration which refers to
a class template does not restrict the set of partial specializations
which may be found through the using-declaration. [Example:
namespace N {
template<class T1, class T2> class A { }; // primary template
}
using N::A; // refers to the primary template
namespace N {
template<class T> class A<T, T*> { }; // partial specialization
}
A<int,int*> a; // uses the partial specialization, which is found through
// the using declaration which refers to the primary template
--end example]
8 A non-type argument is non-specialized if it is the name of a non-type
parameter. All other non-type arguments are specialized.
9 Within the argument list of a class template partial specialization,
the following restrictions apply:
--A partially specialized non-type argument expression shall not
involve a template parameter of the partial specialization except
when the argument expression is a simple identifier. [Example:
template <int I, int J> struct A {};
template <int I> struct A<I+5, I*2> {}; // error
template <int I, int J> struct B {};
template <int I> struct B<I, I> {}; // OK
--end example]
--The type of a template parameter corresponding to a specialized non-
type argument shall not be dependent on a parameter of the special-
ization. [Example:
template <class T, T t> struct C {};
template <class T> struct C<T, 1>; // error
template< int X, int (*array_ptr)[X] > class A {};
int array[5];
template< int X > class A<X,&array> { }; // error
--end example]
--The argument list of the specialization shall not be identical to
the implicit argument list of the primary template.
10The template parameter list of a specialization shall not contain
default template argument values.4)
_________________________
4) There is no way in which they could be used.
14.5.4.1 Matching of class template [temp.class.spec.match]
partial specializations
1 When a class template is used in a context that requires an instantia-
tion of the class, it is necessary to determine whether the instantia-
tion is to be generated using the primary template or one of the par-
tial specializations. This is done by matching the template arguments
of the class template specialization with the template argument lists
of the partial specializations.
--If exactly one matching specialization is found, the instantiation
is generated from that specialization.
--If more than one matching specialization is found, the partial order
rules (_temp.class.order_) are used to determine whether one of the
specializations is more specialized than the others. If none of the
specializations is more specialized than all of the other matching
specializations, then the use of the class template is ambiguous and
the program is ill-formed.
--If no matches are found, the instantiation is generated from the
primary template.
2 A partial specialization matches a given actual template argument list
if the template arguments of the partial specialization can be deduced
from the actual template argument list (_temp.deduct_). [Example:
A<int, int, 1> a1; // uses #1
A<int, int*, 1> a2; // uses #2, T is int, I is 1
A<int, char*, 5> a3; // uses #4, T is char
A<int, char*, 1> a4; // uses #5, T1 is int, T2 is char, I is 1
A<int*, int*, 2> a5; // ambiguous: matches #3 and #5
--end example]
3 A non-type template argument can also be deduced from the value of an
actual template argument of a non-type parameter of the primary tem-
plate. [Example: the declaration of a2 above. ]
4 In a type name that refers to a class template specialization, (e.g.,
A<int, int, 1>) the argument list must match the template parameter
list of the primary template. The template arguments of a specializa-
tion are deduced from the arguments of the primary template.
14.5.4.2 Partial ordering of class template [temp.class.order]
specializations
1 For two class template partial specializations, the first is at least
as specialized as the second if, given the following rewrite to two
function templates, the first function template is at least as spe-
cialized as the second according to the ordering rules for function
templates (_temp.func.order_):
--the first function template has the same template parameters as the
first partial specialization and has a single function parameter
whose type is a class template specialization with the template
arguments of the first partial specialization, and
--the second function template has the same template parameters as the
second partial specialization and has a single function parameter
whose type is a class template specialization with the template
arguments of the second partial specialization.
2 [Example:
template<int I, int J, class T> class X { };
template<int I, int J> class X<I, J, int> { }; // #1
template<int I> class X<I, I, int> { }; // #2
template<int I, int J> void f(X<I, J, int>); // #A
template<int I> void f(X<I, I, int>); // #B
The partial specialization #2 is more specialized than the partial
specialization #1 because the function template #B is more specialized
than the function template #A according to the ordering rules for
function templates. ]
14.5.4.3 Members of class template [temp.class.spec.mfunc]
specializations
1 The template parameter list of a member of a class template partial
specialization shall match the template parameter list of the class
template partial specialization. The template argument list of a mem-
ber of a class template partial specialization shall match the tem-
plate argument list of the class template partial specialization. A
class template specialization is a distinct template. The members of
the class template partial specialization are unrelated to the members
of the primary template. Class template partial specialization mem-
bers that are used in a way that requires a definition shall be
defined; the definitions of members of the primary template are never
used as definitions for members of a class template partial special-
ization. An explicit specialization of a member of a class template
partial specialization is declared in the same way as an explicit spe-
cialization of the primary template. [Example:
// primary template
template<class T, int I> struct A {
void f();
};
template<class T, int I> void A<T,I>::f() { }
// class template partial specialization
template<class T> struct A<T,2> {
void f();
void g();
void h();
};
// member of class template partial specialization
template<class T> void A<T,2>::g() { }
// explicit specialization
template<> void A<char,2>::h() { }
int main()
{
A<char,0> a0;
A<char,2> a2;
a0.f(); // OK, uses definition of primary template's member
a2.g(); // OK, uses definition of
// partial specialization's member
a2.h(); // OK, uses definition of
// explicit specialization's member
a2.f(); // ill-formed, no definition of f for A<T,2>
// the primary template is not used here
}
--end example]
2 If a member template of a class template is partially specialized, the
member template partial specializations are member templates of the
enclosing class template; if the enclosing class template is instanti-
ated (_temp.inst_, _temp.explicit_), a declaration for every member
template partial specialization is also instantiated as part of creat-
ing the members of the class template specialization. If the primary
member template is explicitly specialized for a given (implicit) spe-
cialization of the enclosing class template, the partial specializa-
tions of the member template are ignored for this specialization of
the enclosing class template. If a partial specialization of the mem-
ber template is explicitly specialized for a given (implicit) special-
ization of the enclosing class template, the primary member template
and its other partial specializations are still considered for this
specialization of the enclosing class template. [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
template<class T2> struct B {}; // #1
template<class T2> struct B<T2*> {}; // #2
};
template<> template<class T2> struct A<short>::B {}; // #3
A<char>::B<int*> abcip; // uses #2
A<short>::B<int*> absip; // uses #3
A<char>::B<int> abci; // uses #1
--end example]
14.5.5 Function templates [temp.fct]
1 A function template defines an unbounded set of related functions.
[Example: a family of sort functions might be declared like this:
template<class T> class Array { };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>&);
--end example]
2 A function template can be overloaded with other function templates
and with normal (non-template) functions. A normal function is not
related to a function template (i.e., it is never considered to be a
specialization), even if it has the same name and type as a poten-
tially generated function template specialization.5)
14.5.5.1 Function template overloading [temp.over.link]
1 It is possible to overload function templates so that two different
function template specializations have the same type. [Example:
// file1.c // file2.c
template<class T> template<class T>
void f(T*); void f(T);
void g(int* p) { void h(int* p) {
f(p); // call f(p); // call
// f<int>(int*) // f<int*>(int*)
} }
--end example]
2 Such specializations are distinct functions and do not violate the one
definition rule (_basic.def.odr_).
3 The signature of a function template specialization consists of the
signature of the function template and of the actual template argu-
ments (whether explicitly specified or deduced).
4 The signature of a function template consists of its function signa-
ture, its return type and its template parameter list. The names of
the template parameters are significant only for establishing the
relationship between the template parameters and the rest of the sig-
nature. [Note: two distinct function templates may have identical
function return types and function parameter lists, even if overload
resolution alone cannot distinguish them.
template<class T> void f();
template<int I> void f(); //OK: overloads the first template
// distinguishable with an explicit template argument list
--end note]
5 When an expression that references a template parameter is used in the
function parameter list or the return type in the declaration of a
function template, the expression that references the template parame-
ter is part of the signature of the function template. This is neces-
sary to permit a declaration of a function template in one translation
unit to be linked with another declaration of the function template in
another translation unit and, conversely, to ensure that function tem-
plates that are intended to be distinct are not linked with one
another. [Example:
template <int I, int J> A<I+J> f(A<I>, A<J>); // #1
template <int K, int L> A<K+L> f(A<K>, A<L>); // same as #1
template <int I, int J> A<I-J> f(A<I>, A<J>); // different from #1
_________________________
5) That is, declarations of non-template functions do not merely guide
overload resolution of template functions with the same name. If such
a non-template function is used in a program, it must be defined; it
will not be implicitly instantiated using the function template defi-
nition.
--end example] [Note: Most expressions that use template parameters
use non-type template parameters, but it is possible for an expression
to reference a type parameter. For example, a template type parameter
can be used in the sizeof operator. ]
6 Two expressions involving template parameters are considered equiva-
lent if two function definitions containing the expressions would sat-
isfy the one definition rule (_basic.def.odr_), except that the tokens
used to name the template parameters may differ as long as a token
used to name a template parameter in one expression is replaced by
another token that names the same template parameter in the other
expression. [Example:
template <int I, int J> void f(A<I+J>); // #1
template <int K, int L> void f(A<K+L>); // same as #1
--end example] Two expressions involving template parameters that are
not equivalent are functionally equivalent if, for any given set of
template arguments, the evaluation of the expression results in the
same value.
7 Two function templates are equivalent if they are declared in the same
scope, have the same name, have identical template parameter lists,
and have return types and parameter lists that are equivalent using
the rules described above to compare expressions involving non-type
template parameters. Two function templates are functionally equiva-
lent if they are equivalent except that one or more non-type expres-
sions that involve template parameters in the return types and parame-
ter lists are functionally equivalent using the rules described above
to compare expressions involving non-type template parameters. If a
program contains declarations of function templates that are function-
ally equivalent but not equivalent, the program is ill-formed; no
diagnostic is required.
8 [Note: This rule guarantees that equivalent declarations will be
linked with one another, while not requiring implementations to use
heroic efforts to guarantee that functionally equivalent declarations
will be treated as distinct. For example, the last two declarations
are functionally equivalent and would cause a program to be ill-
formed:
// Guaranteed to be the same
template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>);
template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>);
// Guaranteed to be different
template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>);
template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+11>);
// Ill-formed, no diagnostic required
template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>);
template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+1+2+3+4>);
--end note]
14.5.5.2 Partial ordering of function [temp.func.order]
templates
1 If a function template is overloaded, the use of a function template
specialization might be ambiguous because template argument deduction
(_temp.deduct_) may associate the function template specialization
with more than one function template declaration. Partial ordering of
overloaded function template declarations is used in the following
contexts to select the function template to which a function template
specialization refers:
--during overload resolution for a call to a function template spe-
cialization (_over.match.best_);
--when the address of a function template specialization is taken;
--when a placement operator delete that is a template function spe-
cialization is selected to match a placement operator new
(_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_, _expr.new_);
--when a friend function declaration (_temp.friend_), an explicit
instantiation (_temp.explicit_) or an explicit specialization
(_temp.expl.spec_) refers to a function template specialization.
2 Given two overloaded function templates, whether one is more special-
ized than another can be determined by transforming each template in
turn and using argument deduction (_temp.deduct_) to compare it to the
other.
3 The transformation used is:
--For each type template parameter, synthesize a unique type and sub-
stitute that for each occurrence of that parameter in the function
parameter list, or for a template conversion function, in the return
type.
--For each non-type template parameter, synthesize a unique value of
the appropriate type and substitute that for each occurrence of that
parameter in the function parameter list, or for a template conver-
sion function, in the return type.
--For each template template parameter, synthesize a unique class tem-
plate and substitute that for each occurrence of that parameter in
the function parameter list, or for a template conversion function,
in the return type.
4 Using the transformed function parameter list, perform argument deduc-
tion against the other function template. The transformed template is
at least as specialized as the other if, and only if, the deduction
succeeds and the deduced parameter types are an exact match (so the
deduction does not rely on implicit conversions).
5 A template is more specialized than another if, and only if, it is at
least as specialized as the other template and that template is not at
least as specialized as the first. [Example:
template<class T> struct A { A(); };
template<class T> void f(T);
template<class T> void f(T*);
template<class T> void f(const T*);
template<class T> void g(T);
template<class T> void g(T&);
template<class T> void h(const T&);
template<class T> void h(A<T>&);
void m() {
const int *p;
f(p); // f(const T*) is more specialized than f(T) or f(T*)
float x;
g(x); // Ambiguous: g(T) or g(T&)
A<int> z;
h(z); // overload resolution selects h(A<T>&)
const A<int> z2;
h(z2); // h(const T&) is called because h(A<T>&) is not callable
}
--end example]
6 The presence of unused ellipsis and default arguments has no effect on
the partial ordering of function templates. [Example:
template<class T> void f(T); // #1
template<class T> void f(T*, int=1); // #2
template<class T> void g(T); // #3
template<class T> void g(T*, ...); // #4
int main() {
int* ip;
f(ip); // calls #2
g(ip); // calls #4
}
--end example]
14.6 Name resolution [temp.res]
1 Three kinds of names can be used within a template definition:
--The name of the template itself, and names declared within the tem-
plate itself.
--Names dependent on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_).
--Names from scopes which are visible within the template definition.
2 A name used in a template declaration or definition and that is depen-
dent on a template-parameter is assumed not to name a type unless the
applicable name lookup finds a type name or the name is qualified by
the keyword typename. [Example:
// no B declared here
class X;
template<class T> class Y {
class Z; // forward declaration of member class
void f() {
X* a1; // declare pointer to X
T* a2; // declare pointer to T
Y* a3; // declare pointer to Y<T>
Z* a4; // declare pointer to Z
typedef typename T::A TA;
TA* a5; // declare pointer to T's A
typename T::A* a6; // declare pointer to T's A
T::A* a7; // T::A is not a type name:
// multiply T::A by a7; ill-formed,
// no visible declaration of a7
B* a8; // B is not a type name:
// multiply B by a8; ill-formed,
// no visible declarations of B and a8
}
};
--end example]
3 A qualified-name that refers to a type and that depends on a template-
parameter (_temp.dep_) shall be prefixed by the keyword typename to
indicate that the qualified-name denotes a type, forming an elabo-
rated-type-specifier (_dcl.type.elab_).
elaborated-type-specifier:
. . .
typename ::opt nested-name-specifier identifier
typename ::opt nested-name-specifier identifier < template-argument-list >
. . .
4 If a specialization of a template is instantiated for a set of tem-
plate-arguments such that the qualified-name prefixed by typename does
not denote a type, the specialization is ill-formed. The usual quali-
fied name lookup (_basic.lookup.qual_) is used to find the qualified-
name even in the presence of typename. [Example:
struct A {
struct X { };
int X;
};
template<class T> void f(T t) {
typename T::X x; // ill-formed: finds the data member X
// not the member type X
}
--end example]
5 The keyword typename shall only be used in template declarations and
definitions, including in the return type of a function template or
member function template, in the return type for the definition of a
member function of a class template or of a class nested within a
class template, and in the type-specifier for the definition of a
static member of a class template or of a class nested within a class
template. The keyword typename shall only be applied to qualified
names, but those names need not be dependent. The keyword typename is
not permitted in a base-specifier or in a mem-initializer; in these
contexts a qualified-name that depends on a template-parameter
(_temp.dep_) is implicitly assumed to be a type name.
6 Within the definition of a class template or within the definition of
a member of a class template, the keyword typename is not required
when referring to the unqualified name of a previously declared member
of the class template that declares a type. The keyword typename
shall always be specified when the member is referred to using a qual-
ified name, even if the qualifier is simply the class template name.
[Example:
template<class T> struct A {
typedef int B;
A::B b; // ill-formed: typename required before A::B
void f(A<T>::B); // ill-formed: typename required before A<T>::B
typename A::B g(); // OK
};
The keyword typename is required whether the qualified name is A or
A<T> because A or A<T> are synonyms within a class template with the
parameter list <T>. ]
7 Knowing which names are type names allows the syntax of every template
definition to be checked. No diagnostic shall be issued for a tem-
plate definition for which a valid specialization can be generated.
If no valid specialization can be generated for a template definition,
and that template is not instantiated, the template definition is ill-
formed, no diagnostic required. [Note: if a template is instantiated,
errors will be diagnosed according to the other rules in this Stan-
dard. Exactly when these errors are diagnosed is a quality of imple-
mentation issue. ] [Example:
int j;
template<class T> class X {
// ...
void f(T t, int i, char* p)
{
t = i; // diagnosed if X::f is instantiated
// and the assignment to t is an error
p = i; // may be diagnosed even if X::f is
// not instantiated
p = j; // may be diagnosed even if X::f is
// not instantiated
}
void g(T t) {
+; // may be diagnosed even if X::g is
// not instantiated
}
};
--end example]
8 When looking for the declaration of a name used in a template defini-
tion, the usual lookup rules (_basic.lookup.unqual_,
_basic.lookup.koenig_) are used for nondependent names. The lookup of
names dependent on the template parameters is postponed until the
actual template argument is known (_temp.dep_). [Example:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class T> class Set {
T* p;
int cnt;
public:
Set();
Set<T>(const Set<T>&);
void printall()
{
for (int i = 0; i<cnt; i++)
cout << p[i] << '\n';
}
// ...
};
in the example, i is the local variable i declared in printall, cnt is
the member cnt declared in Set, and cout is the standard output stream
declared in iostream. However, not every declaration can be found
this way; the resolution of some names must be postponed until the
actual template-arguments are known. For example, even though the
name operator<< is known within the definition of printall() and a
declaration of it can be found in <iostream>, the actual declaration
of operator<< needed to print p[i] cannot be known until it is known
what type T is (_temp.dep_). ]
9 If a name does not depend on a template-parameter (as defined in
_temp.dep_), a declaration (or set of declarations) for that name
shall be in scope at the point where the name appears in the template
definition; the name is bound to the declaration (or declarations)
found at that point and this binding is not affected by declarations
that are visible at the point of instantiation. [Example:
void f(char);
template<class T> void g(T t)
{
f(1); // f(char)
f(T(1)); // dependent
f(t); // dependent
dd++; // not dependent
// error: declaration for dd not found
}
void f(int);
double dd;
void h()
{
g(2); // will cause one call of f(char) followed
// by two calls of f(int)
g('a'); // will cause three calls of f(char)
}
--end example]
10[Note: for purposes of name lookup, default arguments of function tem-
plates and default arguments of member functions of class templates
are considered definitions (_temp.decls_). --end note]
14.6.1 Locally declared names [temp.local]
1 Within the scope of a class template, when the name of the template is
neither qualified nor followed by <, it is equivalent to the name of
the template followed by the template-parameters enclosed in <>.
[Example: the constructor for Set can be referred to as Set() or
Set<T>(). ] Other specializations (_temp.expl.spec_) of the class can
be referred to by explicitly qualifying the template name with the
appropriate template-arguments. [Example:
template<class T> class X {
X* p; // meaning X<T>
X<T>* p2;
X<int>* p3;
};
--end example]
2 Within the scope of a class template specialization or partial spe-
cialization, when the name of the template is neither qualified nor
followed by <, it is equivalent to the name of the template followed
by the template-arguments enclosed in <>. [Example:
template<class T> class Y;
template<> class Y<int> {
Y* p; // meaning Y<int>
Y<char>* q; // meaning Y<char>
};
--end example]
3 The scope of a template-parameter extends from its point of declara-
tion until the end of its template. A template-parameter hides any
entity with the same name in the enclosing scope. [Note: this implies
that a template-parameter can be used in the declaration of subsequent
template-parameters and their default arguments but cannot be used in
preceding template-parameters or their default arguments. For exam-
ple,
template<class T, T* p, class U = T> class X { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void f(T* p = new T);
This also implies that a template-parameter can be used in the speci-
fication of base classes. For example,
template<class T> class X : public Array<T> { /* ... */ };
template<class T> class Y : public T { /* ... */ };
The use of a template-parameter as a base class implies that a class
used as a template-argument must be defined and not just declared when
the class template is instantiated. ]
4 A template-parameter shall not be redeclared within its scope (includ-
ing nested scopes). A template-parameter shall not have the same name
as the template name. [Example:
template<class T, int i> class Y {
int T; // error: template-parameter redeclared
void f() {
char T; // error: template-parameter redeclared
}
};
template<class X> class X; // error: template-parameter redeclared
--end example]
5 In the definition of a member of a class template that appears outside
of the class template definition, the name of a member of this tem-
plate hides the name of a template-parameter. [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
struct B { /* ... */ };
void f();
};
template<class B> void A<B>::f() {
B b; // A's B, not the template parameter
}
--end example]
6 In the definition of a member of a class template that appears outside
of the namespace containing the class template definition, the name of
a template-parameter hides the name of a member of this namespace.
[Example:
namespace N {
class C { };
template<class T> class B {
void f(T);
};
}
template<class C> void N::B<C>::f(C) {
C b; // C is the template parameter, not N::C
}
--end example]
7 In the definition of a class template or in the definition of a member
of such a template that appears outside of the template definition,
for each base class which does not depend on a template-parameter
(_temp.dep_), if the name of the base class or the name of a member of
the base class is the same as the name of a template-parameter, the
base class name or member name hides the template-parameter name
(_basic.scope.hiding_). [Example:
struct A {
struct B { /* ... */ };
int a;
int Y;
};
template<class B, class a> struct X : A {
B b; // A's B
a b; // error: A's a isn't a type name
};
--end example]
14.6.2 Dependent names [temp.dep]
1 Inside a template, some constructs have semantics which may differ
from one instantiation to another. Such a construct depends on the
template parameters. In particular, types and expressions may depend
on the type and or value of template parameters (as determined by the
template arguments) and this determines the context for name lookup
for certain names. Expressions may be type-dependent (on the type of
a template parameter) or value-dependent (on the value of a non-type
template parameter). In an expression of the form:
postfix-expression ( expression-listopt )
where the postfix-expression is an identifier, the identifier denotes
a dependent name if and only if any of the expressions in the expres-
sion-list is a type-dependent expression (_temp.dep.expr_). If an
operand of an operator is a type-dependent expression, the operator
also denotes a dependent name. Such names are unbound and are looked
up at the point of the template instantiation (_temp.point_) in both
the context of the template definition and the context of the point of
instantiation.
2 [Example:
template<class T> struct X : B<T> {
typename T::A* pa;
void f(B<T>* pb) {
static int i = B<T>::i;
pb->j++;
}
};
the base class name B<T>, the type name T::A, the names B<T>::i and
pb->j explicitly depend on the template-parameter. --end example]
3 In the definition of a class template or in the definition of a member
of such a template that appears outside of the template definition, if
a base class of this template depends on a template-parameter, the
base class scope is not examined during name lookup until the class
template is instantiated. [Example:
typedef double A;
template<class T> B {
typedef int A;
};
template<class T> struct X : B<T> {
A a; // a has type double
};
The type name A in the definition of X<T> binds to the typedef name
defined in the global namespace scope, not to the typedef name defined
in the base class B<T>. ]
4 If a base class is a dependent type, a member of that class cannot
hide a name declared within a template, or a name from the template's
enclosing scopes. [Example:
struct A {
struct B { /* ... */ };
int a;
int Y;
};
int a;
template<class T> struct Y : T {
struct B { /* ... */ };
B b; // The B defined in Y
void f(int i) { a = i; } // ::a
Y* p; // Y<T>
};
Y<A> ya;
The members A::B, A::a, and A::Y of the template argument A do not
affect the binding of names in Y<A>. ]
14.6.2.1 Dependent types [temp.dep.type]
1 A type is dependent if it is
--a template parameter,
--a qualified-id with a nested-name-specifier which contains a class-
name that names a dependent type or whose unqualified-id names a
dependent type,
--a cv-qualified type where the cv-unqualified type is dependent,
--a compound type constructed from any dependent type,
--an array type constructed from any dependent type or whose size is
specified by a constant expression that is value-dependent,
--a template-id in which either the template name is a template param-
eter or any of the template arguments is a dependent type or an
expression that is type-dependent or value-dependent.
14.6.2.2 Type-dependent expressions [temp.dep.expr]
1 Except as described below, an expression is type-dependent if any
subexpression is type-dependent.
2 this is type-dependent if the class type of the enclosing member func-
tion is dependent (_temp.dep.type_).
3 An id-expression is type-dependent if it contains:
--an identifier that was declared with a dependent type,
--a template-id that is dependent,
--a conversion-function-id that specifies a dependent type,
--a nested-name-specifier that contains a class-name that names a
dependent type.
Expressions of the following forms are type-dependent only if the type
specified by the type-id, simple-type-specifier or new-type-id is
dependent, even if any subexpression is type-dependent:
simple-type-specifier ( expression-listopt )
::opt new new-placementopt new-type-id new-initializeropt
::opt new new-placementopt ( type-id ) new-initializeropt
dynamic_cast < type-id > ( expression )
static_cast < type-id > ( expression )
const_cast < type-id > ( expression )
reinterpret_cast < type-id > ( expression )
( type-id ) cast-expression
4 Expressions of the following forms are never type-dependent (because
the type of the expression cannot be dependent):
literal
postfix-expression . pseudo-destructor-name
postfix-expression -> pseudo-destructor-name
sizeof unary-expression
sizeof ( type-id )
typeid ( expression )
typeid ( type-id )
::opt delete cast-expression
::opt delete [ ] cast-expression
throw assignment-expressionopt
14.6.2.3 Value-dependent expressions [temp.dep.constexpr]
1 Except as described below, a constant expression is value-dependent if
any subexpression is value-dependent.
2 An identifier is value-dependent if it is:
--a name declared with a dependent type,
--the name of a non-type template parameter,
--a constant with integral or enumeration type and is initialized with
an expression that is value-dependent.
Expressions of the following form are value-dependent if the unary-
expression is type-dependent or the type-id is dependent (even if
sizeof unary-expression and sizeof ( type-id ) are not type-depen-
dent):
sizeof unary-expression
sizeof ( type-id )
3 Expressions of the following form are value-dependent if either the
type-id or simple-type-specifier is dependent or the expression or
cast-expression is value-dependent:
simple-type-specifier ( expression-listopt )
static_cast < type-id > ( expression )
const_cast < type-id > ( expression )
reinterpret_cast < type-id > ( expression )
( type-id ) cast-expression
14.6.2.4 Dependent template arguments [temp.dep.temp]
1 A type template-argument is dependent if the type it specifies is
dependent.
2 An integral non-type template-argument is dependent if the constant
expression it specifies is value-dependent.
3 A non-integral non-type template-argument is dependent if its type is
dependent or it has either of the following forms
qualified-id
& qualified-id
and contains a nested-name-specifier which specifies a class-name that
names a dependent type.
4 A template template-argument is dependent if it names a template-
parameter or is a qualified-id with a nested-name-specifier which con-
tains a class-name that names a dependent type.
14.6.3 Non-dependent names [temp.nondep]
1 Non-dependent names used in a template definition are found using the
usual name lookup and bound at the point they are used. [Example:
void g(double);
void h();
template<class T> class Z {
public:
void f() {
g(1); // calls g(double)
h++; // ill-formed: cannot increment function;
// this could be diagnosed either here or
// at the point of instantiation
}
};
void g(int); // not in scope at the point of the template
// definition, not considered for the call g(1)
--end example]
14.6.4 Dependent name resolution [temp.dep.res]
1 In resolving dependent names, names from the following sources are
considered:
--Declarations that are visible at the point of definition of the tem-
plate.
--Declarations from namespaces associated with the types of the func-
tion arguments both from the instantiation context (_temp.point_)
and from the definition context.
14.6.4.1 Point of instantiation [temp.point]
1 For a function template specialization, a member function template
specialization, or a specialization for a member function or static
data member of a class template, if the specialization is implicitly
instantiated because it is referenced from within another template
specialization and the context from which it is referenced depends on
a template parameter, the point of instantiation of the specialization
is the point of instantiation of the enclosing specialization. Other-
wise, the point of instantiation for such a specialization immediately
follows the namespace scope declaration or definition that refers to
the specialization.
2 If a function template or member function of a class template is
called in a way which uses the definition of a default argument of
that function template or member function, the point of instantiation
of the default argument is the point of instantiation of the function
template or member function specialization.
3 For a class template specialization, a class member template special-
ization, or a specialization for a class member of a class template,
if the specialization is implicitly instantiated because it is refer-
enced from within another template specialization, if the context from
which the specialization is referenced depends on a template parame-
ter, and if the specialization is not instantiated previous to the
instantiation of the enclosing template, the point of instantiation is
immediately before the point of instantiation of the enclosing tem-
plate. Otherwise, the point of instantiation for such a specializa-
tion immediately precedes the namespace scope declaration or defini-
tion that refers to the specialization.
4 If a virtual function is implicitly instantiated, its point of instan-
tiation is immediately following the point of instantiation of its
enclosing class template specialization.
5 An explicit instantiation directive is an instantiation point for the
specialization or specializations specified by the explicit instantia-
tion directive.
6 The instantiation context of an expression that depends on the tem-
plate arguments is the set of declarations with external linkage
declared prior to the point of instantiation of the template special-
ization in the same translation unit.
7 A specialization for a function template, a member function template,
or of a member function or static data member of a class template may
have multiple points of instantiations within a translation unit. A
specialization for a class template has at most one point of instanti-
ation within a translation unit. A specialization for any template
may have points of instantiation in multiple translation units. If
two different points of instantiation give a template specialization
different meanings according to the one definition rule
(_basic.def.odr_), the program is ill-formed, no diagnostic required.
14.6.4.2 Candidate functions [temp.dep.candidate]
1 For a function call that depends on a template parameter, if the func-
tion name is an unqualified-id but not a template-id, the candidate
functions are found using the usual lookup rules
(_basic.lookup.unqual_, _basic.lookup.koenig_) except that:
--For the part of the lookup using unqualified name lookup
(_basic.lookup.unqual_), only function declarations with external
linkage from the template definition context are found.
--For the part of the lookup using associated namespaces
(_basic.lookup.koenig_), only function declarations with external
linkage found in either the template definition context or the tem-
plate instantiation context are found.
If the call would be ill-formed or would find a better match had the
lookup within the associated namespaces considered all the function
declarations with external linkage introduced in those namespaces in
all translation units, not just considering those declarations found
in the template definition and template instantiation contexts, then
the program has undefined behavior.
14.6.5 Friend names declared within a class [temp.inject]
template
1 Friend classes or functions can be declared within a class template.
When a template is instantiated, the names of its friends are treated
as if the specialization had been explicitly declared at its point of
instantiation.
2 As with non-template classes, the names of namespace-scope friend
functions of a class template specialization are not visible during an
ordinary lookup unless explicitly declared at namespace scope
(_class.friend_). Such names may be found under the rules for associ-
ated classes (_basic.lookup.koenig_).6) [Example:
template<typename T> class number {
number(int);
//...
friend number gcd(number& x, number& y) { /* ... */ }
//...
};
void g()
{
number<double> a(3), b(4);
//...
a = gcd(a,b); // finds gcd because number<double> is an
// associated class, making gcd visible
// in its namespace (global scope)
b = gcd(3,4); // ill-formed; gcd is not visible
}
--end example]
14.7 Template instantiation and specialization [temp.spec]
1 The act of instantiating a function, a class, a member of a class tem-
plate or a member template is referred to as template instantiation.
2 A function instantiated from a function template is called an instan-
tiated function. A class instantiated from a class template is called
an instantiated class. A member function, a member class, or a static
data member of a class template instantiated from the member defini-
tion of the class template is called, respectively, an instantiated
member function, member class or static data member. A member func-
tion instantiated from a member function template is called an instan-
tiated member function. A member class instantiated from a member
class template is called an instantiated member class.
3 An explicit specialization may be declared for a function template, a
class template, a member of a class template or a member template. An
explicit specialization declaration is introduced by template<>. In
an explicit specialization declaration for a class template, a member
of a class template or a class member template, the name of the class
_________________________
6) Friend declarations do not introduce new names into any scope, ei-
ther when the template is declared or when it is instantiated.
that is explicitly specialized shall be a template-id. In the
explicit specialization declaration for a function template or a mem-
ber function template, the name of the function or member function
explicitly specialized may be a template-id. [Example:
template<class T = int> struct A {
static int x;
};
template<class U> void g(U) { }
template<> struct A<double> { }; // specialize for T == double
template<> struct A<> { }; // specialize for T == int
template<> void g(char) { } // specialize for U == char
// U is deduced from the parameter type
template<> void g<int>(int) { } // specialize for U == int
template<> int A<char>::x = 0; // specialize for T == char
template<class T = int> struct B {
static int x;
};
template<> int B<>::x = 1; // specialize for T == int
--end example]
4 An instantiated template specialization can be either implicitly
instantiated (_temp.inst_) for a given argument list or be explicitly
instantiated (_temp.explicit_). A specialization is a class, func-
tion, or class member that is either instantiated or explicitly spe-
cialized (_temp.expl.spec_).
5 No program shall explicitly instantiate any template more than once,
both explicitly instantiate and explicitly specialize a template, or
specialize a template more than once for a given set of template-argu-
ments. An implementation is not required to diagnose a violation of
this rule.
6 Each class template specialization instantiated from a template has
its own copy of any static members. [Example:
template<class T> class X {
static T s;
// ...
};
template<class T> T X<T>::s = 0;
X<int> aa;
X<char*> bb;
X<int> has a static member s of type int and X<char*> has a static
member s of type char*. ]
14.7.1 Implicit instantiation [temp.inst]
1 Unless a class template specialization has been explicitly instanti-
ated (_temp.explicit_) or explicitly specialized (_temp.expl.spec_),
the class template specialization is implicitly instantiated when the
specialization is referenced in a context that requires a completely-
defined object type or when the completeness of the class type affects
the semantics of the program. The implicit instantiation of a class
template specialization causes the implicit instantiation of the dec-
larations, but not of the definitions or default arguments, of the
class member functions, member classes, static data members and member
templates; and it causes the implicit instantiation of the definitions
of member anonymous unions. Unless a member of a class template or a
member template has been explicitly instantiated or explicitly spe-
cialized, the specialization of the member is implicitly instantiated
when the specialization is referenced in a context that requires the
member definition to exist; in particular, the initialization (and any
associated side-effects) of a static data member does not occur unless
the static data member is itself used in a way that requires the defi-
nition of the static data member to exist.
2 Unless a function template specialization has been explicitly instan-
tiated or explicitly specialized, the function template specialization
is implicitly instantiated when the specialization is referenced in a
context that requires a function definition to exist. Unless a call
is to a function template explicit specialization or to a member func-
tion of an explicitly specialized class template, a default argument
for a function template or a member function of a class template is
implicitly instantiated when the function is called in a context that
requires the value of the default argument.
3 [Example:
template<class T> class Z {
public:
void f();
void g();
};
void h()
{
Z<int> a; // instantiation of class Z<int> required
Z<char>* p; // instantiation of class Z<char> not
// required
Z<double>* q; // instantiation of class Z<double>
// not required
a.f(); // instantiation of Z<int>::f() required
p->g(); // instantiation of class Z<char> required, and
// instantiation of Z<char>::g() required
}
Nothing in this example requires class Z<double>, Z<int>::g(), or
Z<char>::f() to be implicitly instantiated. ]
4 A class template specialization is implicitly instantiated if the
class type is used in a context that requires a completely-defined
object type or if the completeness of the class type affects the
semantics of the program; in particular, if an expression whose type
is a class template specialization is involved in overload resolution,
pointer conversion, pointer to member conversion, the class template
specialization is implicitly instantiated (_basic.def.odr_); in addi-
tion, a class template specialization is implicitly instantiated if
the operand of a delete expression is of class type or is of pointer
to class type and the class type is a template specialization.
[Example:
template<class T> class B { /* ... */ };
template<class T> class D : public B<T> { /* ... */ };
void f(void*);
void f(B<int>*);
void g(D<int>* p, D<char>* pp, D<double> ppp)
{
f(p); // instantiation of D<int> required: call f(B<int>*)
B<char>* q = pp; // instantiation of D<char> required:
// convert D<char>* to B<char>*
delete ppp; // instantiation of D<double> required
}
--end example]
5 If the overload resolution process can determine the correct function
to call without instantiating a class template definition, it is
unspecified whether that instantiation actually takes place. [Exam-
ple:
template <class T> struct S {
operator int();
};
void f(int);
void f(S<int>&);
void f(S<float>);
void g(S<int>& sr) {
f(sr); // instantiation of S<int> allowed but not required
// instantiation of S<float> allowed but not required
};
--end example]
6 If an implicit instantiation of a class template specialization is
required and the template is declared but not defined, the program is
ill-formed. [Example:
template<class T> class X;
X<char> ch; // error: definition of X required
--end example]
7 The implicit instantiation of a class template does not cause any
static data members of that class to be implicitly instantiated.
8 If a function template or a member function template specialization is
used in a way that involves overload resolution, a declaration of the
specialization is implicitly instantiated (_temp.over_).
9 An implementation shall not implicitly instantiate a function tem-
plate, a member template, a non-virtual member function, a member
class or a static data member of a class template that does not
require instantiation. It is unspecified whether or not an implemen-
tation implicitly instantiates a virtual member function of a class
template if the virtual member function would not otherwise be instan-
tiated. The use of a template specialization in a default argument
shall not cause the template to be implicitly instantiated except that
a class template may be instantiated where its complete type is needed
to determine the correctness of the default argument. The use of a
default argument in a function call causes specializations in the
default argument to be implicitly instantiated.
10Implicitly instantiated class and function template specializations
are placed in the namespace where the template is defined. Implicitly
instantiated specializations for members of a class template are
placed in the namespace where the enclosing class template is defined.
Implicitly instantiated member templates are placed in the namespace
where the enclosing class or class template is defined. [Example:
namespace N {
template<class T> class List {
public:
T* get();
// ...
};
}
template<class K, class V> class Map {
N::List<V> lt;
V get(K);
// ...
};
void g(Map<char*,int>& m)
{
int i = m.get("Nicholas");
// ...
}
a call of lt.get() from Map<char*,int>::get() would place
List<int>::get() in the namespace N rather than in the global names-
pace. ]
11If a function template f is called in a way that requires a default
argument expression to be used, the dependent names are looked up, the
semantics constraints are checked, and the instantiation of any tem-
plate used in the default argument expression is done as if the
default argument expression had been an expression used in a function
template specialization with the same scope, the same template parame-
ters and the same access as that of the function template f used at
that point. This analysis is called default argument instantiation.
The instantiated default argument is then used as the argument of f.
12Each default argument is instantiated independently. [Example:
template<class T> void f(T x, T y = ydef(T()), T z = zdef(T()));
class A { };
A zdef(A);
void g(A a, A b, A c) {
f(a, b, c); // no default argument instantiation
f(a, b); // default argument z = zdef(T()) instantiated
f(a); // ill-formed; ydef is not declared
}
--end example]
13[Note: _temp.point_ defines the point of instantiation of a template
specialization. ]
14There is an implementation-defined quantity that specifies the limit
on the total depth of recursive instantiations, which could involve
more than one template. The result of an infinite recursion in
instantiation is undefined. [Example:
template<class T> class X {
X<T>* p; // OK
X<T*> a; // implicit generation of X<T> requires
// the implicit instantiation of X<T*> which requires
// the implicit instantiation of X<T**> which ...
};
--end example]
14.7.2 Explicit instantiation [temp.explicit]
1 A class, a function or member template specialization can be explic-
itly instantiated from its template. A member function, member class
or static data member of a class template can be explicitly instanti-
ated from the member definition associated with its class template.
2 The syntax for explicit instantiation is:
explicit-instantiation:
template declaration
If the explicit instantiation is for a class, a function or a member
template specialization, the unqualified-id in the declaration shall
be either a template-id or, where all template arguments can be
deduced, a template-name. [Note: the declaration may declare a quali-
fied-id, in which case the unqualified-id of the qualified-id must be
a template-id. ] If the explicit instantiation is for a member func-
tion, a member class or a static data member of a class template spe-
cialization, the name of the class template specialization in the
qualified-id for the member declarator shall be a template-id. [Exam-
ple:
template<class T> class Array { void mf(); };
template class Array<char>;
template void Array<int>::mf();
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }
template void sort(Array<char>&); // argument is deduced here
namespace N {
template<class T> void f(T&) { }
}
template void N::f<int>(int&);
--end example]
3 A declaration of a function template shall be in scope at the point of
the explicit instantiation of the function template. A definition of
the class or class template containing a member function template
shall be in scope at the point of the explicit instantiation of the
member function template. A definition of a class template or class
member template shall be in scope at the point of the explicit instan-
tiation of the class template or class member template. A definition
of a class template shall be in scope at the point of an explicit
instantiation of a member function or a static data member of the
class template. A definition of a member class of a class template
shall be in scope at the point of an explicit instantiation of the
member class. If the declaration of the explicit instantiation names
an implicitly-declared special member function (clause _special_), the
program is ill-formed.
4 The definition of a non-exported function template, a non-exported
member function template, or a non-exported member function or static
data member of a class template shall be present in every translation
unit in which it is explicitly instantiated.
5 An explicit instantiation of a class or function template specializa-
tion is placed in the namespace in which the template is defined. An
explicit instantiation for a member of a class template is placed in
the namespace where the enclosing class template is defined. An
explicit instantiation for a member template is placed in the names-
pace where the enclosing class or class template is defined. [Exam-
ple:
namespace N {
template<class T> class Y { void mf() { } };
}
template class Y<int>; // error: class template Y not visible
// in the global namespace
using N::Y;
template class Y<int>; // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N
template class N::Y<char*>; // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N
template void N::Y<double>::mf(); // OK: explicit instantiation
// in namespace N
--end example]
6 A trailing template-argument can be left unspecified in an explicit
instantiation of a function template specialization or of a member
function template specialization provided it can be deduced from the
type of a function parameter (_temp.deduct_). [Example:
template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v);
// instantiate sort(Array<int>&) - template-argument deduced
template void sort<>(Array<int>&);
--end example]
7 The explicit instantiation of a class template specialization implies
the instantiation of all of its members not previously explicitly spe-
cialized in the translation unit containing the explicit instantia-
tion.
8 The usual access checking rules do not apply to names used to specify
explicit instantiations. [Note: In particular, the template arguments
and names used in the function declarator (including parameter types,
return types and exception specifications) may be private types or
objects which would normally not be accessible and the template may be
a member template or member function which would not normally be
accessible. ]
9 An explicit instantiation does not constitute a use of a default argu-
ment, so default argument instantiation is not done. [Example:
char* p = 0;
template<class T> T g(T = &p);
template int g<int>(int); // OK even though &p isn't an int.
--end example]
14.7.3 Explicit specialization [temp.expl.spec]
1 An explicit specialization of any of the following:
--function template
--class template
--member function of a class template
--static data member of a class template
--member class of a class template
--member class template of a class template
--member function template of a class template
can be declared by a declaration introduced by template<>; that is:
explicit-specialization:
template < > declaration
[Example:
template<class T> class stream;
template<> class stream<char> { /* ... */ };
template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }
template<> void sort<char*>(Array<char*>&) ;
Given these declarations, stream<char> will be used as the definition
of streams of chars; other streams will be handled by class template
specializations instantiated from the class template. Similarly,
sort<char*> will be used as the sort function for arguments of type
Array<char*>; other Array types will be sorted by functions generated
from the template. ]
2 An explicit specialization shall be declared in the namespace of which
the template is a member, or, for member templates, in the namespace
of which the enclosing class or enclosing class template is a member.
An explicit specialization of a member function, member class or
static data member of a class template shall be declared in the names-
pace of which the class template is a member. Such a declaration may
also be a definition. If the declaration is not a definition, the
specialization may be defined later in the namespace in which the
explicit specialization was declared, or in a namespace that encloses
the one in which the explicit specialization was declared.
3 A declaration of a function template or class template being explic-
itly specialized shall be in scope at the point of declaration of an
explicit specialization. [Note: a declaration, but not a definition
of the template is required. ] The definition of a class or class
template shall be in scope at the point of declaration of an explicit
specialization for a member template of the class or class template.
[Example:
template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ }; // error: X not a template
template<class T> class X;
template<> class X<char*> { /* ... */ }; // OK: X is a template
--end example]
4 A member function, a member class or a static data member of a class
template may be explicitly specialized for a class specialization that
is implicitly instantiated; in this case, the definition of the class
template shall be in scope at the point of declaration of the explicit
specialization for the member of the class template. If such an
explicit specialization for the member of a class template names an
implicitly-declared special member function (clause _special_), the
program is ill-formed.
5 A member of an explicitly specialized class is not implicitly instan-
tiated from the member declaration of the class template; instead, the
member of the class template specialization shall itself be explicitly
defined. In this case, the definition of the class template explicit
specialization shall be in scope at the point of declaration of the
explicit specialization of the member. The definition of an
explicitly specialized class is unrelated to the definition of a gen-
erated specialization. That is, its members need not have the same
names, types, etc. as the members of the a generated specialization.
Definitions of members of an explicitly specialized class are defined
in the same manner as members of normal classes, and not using the
explicit specialization syntax. [Example:
template<class T> struct A {
void f(T) { /* ... */ }
};
template<> struct A<int> {
void f(int);
};
void h()
{
A<int> a;
a.f(16); // A<int>::f must be defined somewhere
}
// explicit specialization syntax not used for a member of
// explicitly specialized class template specialization
void A<int>::f() { /* ... */ }
--end example]
6 If a template, a member template or the member of a class template is
explicitly specialized then that specialization shall be declared
before the first use of that specialization that would cause an
implicit instantiation to take place, in every translation unit in
which such a use occurs; no diagnostic is required. If the program
does not provide a definition for an explicit specialization and
either the specialization is used in a way that would cause an
implicit instantiation to take place or the member is a virtual member
function, the program is ill-formed, no diagnostic required. An
implicit instantiation is never generated for an explicit specializa-
tion that is declared but not defined. [Example:
template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }
void f(Array<String>& v)
{
sort(v); // use primary template
// sort(Array<T>&), T is String
}
template<> void sort<String>(Array<String>& v); // error: specialization
// after use of primary template
template<> void sort<>(Array<char*>& v); // OK: sort<char*> not yet used
--end example]
7 The placement of explicit specialization declarations for function
templates, class templates, member functions of class templates,
static data members of class templates, member classes of class tem-
plates, member class templates of class templates, member function
templates of class templates, member functions of member templates of
class templates, member functions of member templates of non-template
classes, member function templates of member classes of class tem-
plates, etc., and the placement of partial specialization declarations
of class templates, member class templates of non-template classes,
member class templates of class templates, etc., can affect whether a
program is well-formed according to the relative positioning of the
explicit specialization declarations and their points of instantiation
in the translation unit as specified above and below. When writing a
specialization, be careful about its location; or to make it compile
will be such a trial as to kindle its self-immolation.
8 When a specialization for which an explicit specialization exists is
used within the instantiation of an exported template, and the unspe-
cialized template name is non-dependent in the exported template, a
declaration of the explicit specialization shall be declared before
the definition of the exported template, in the translation unit con-
taining that d